Focus and Scope: Politics & Security publishes original peer-reviewed research at the intersection of political science, security studies, public administration, law, and the economic dimensions of security. The journal focuses on national and international security, governance under security pressure, financial and economic instruments of statecraft, and legal frameworks regulating security policy. Manuscripts outside these thematic boundaries are not considered.
High school of security and economics – Plovdiv
FROM RADICALIZATION TO REINTEGRATION: MEASURING THE EFFICACY OF COUNTER-TERRORISM POLICIES IN POST-CONFLICT SOCIETIES
The ontological paradox of reintegration is rarely formulated in such a straightforward manner: a society is requested to re-incorporate the same people whose cruelty has ripped its social fabric, and to do so without the wounds being suppurative, the institutional scaffolding half-collapsed, and the political incentives in a sharp mismatch. It is this conflict between the moral necessity to provide means of escape out of extremism on one side and the social unwillingness to forget what extremism has created on the other side that drives the whole post-conflict governance debate but is habitually papered over by programmatic optimism. The international policy framework has also changed to less kinetic Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism (P/CVE) approaches rather than paradigms in the last 20 years, a move that was influenced less by ideological belief than by the sheer failure of detention-and-destroy paradigms to capture recruitment spurts. Based on a longitudinal comparative study of the Saudi Arabian theological rehabilitation model, the Danish Aarhus social-welfare experiment, and the fractured implementation environments of Iraq, northeastern Nigeria, and the Western Balkans, this article asks the question whether the conceptual machinery of the modern deradicalization programmes can survive exposure to post-conflict environments marked by institutional weakness, ethno-sectarian distrust, and the This data suggests a sobering conclusion that, where it happens, reintegration is not a restorative goal but a managed failure, a politically negotiated stalemate in which recidivism is contained and not solved, the stigma is redistributed and not removed, and measures of success are pegged not to human security results but to funding needs of donor states and implementation agencies.
Copyright (c) 2026 Anton Vysotskyi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE AND SECURITY GOVERNANCE: A CRITICAL DISCUSSION ON THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES IN THE MEXICAN ACCUSATORY CRIMINAL SYSTEM
This paper analyzes the constitutional principles governing criminal procedure in Mexico, understood as human rights and procedural guarantees that ensure respect for the dignity and fundamental rights of defendants, victims, and witnesses. Critically, the article situates these principles within the broader framework of security governance, examining how the 2008 constitutional reform that established the accusatory and oral criminal system was a direct institutional response to the security crisis generated by organized crime, drug cartel violence, and systemic impunity. Using a legal-descriptive methodology, the study reviews normative sources (the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States; the National Code of Criminal Procedure), doctrinal analysis, jurisprudential interpretation (Mexican Supreme Court), and comparative scholarship on criminal justice reform and security. The analysis identifies a fundamental tension between the procedural guarantees enshrined in Article 20 of the Constitution — including the presumption of innocence, publicity, adversarial proceedings, and due process — and the state's operational need to effectively prosecute organized crime, drug trafficking, corruption, and terrorism. The article concludes that the system's effectiveness as a security governance instrument depends on the genuine observance of these principles, institutional adaptation, and the consolidation of a human rights-based judicial culture capable of addressing high-complexity security threats without sacrificing constitutional guarantees.
Political Constitution of the United Mexican States
Copyright (c) 2026 Martín Beltrán Saucedo, Elena Anatolievna Zhizhko, Stefanía Ávila Villaseñor https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
EMERGENCY GOVERNANCE AND RULE OF LAW: EVALUATING EXECUTIVE OVERREACH DURING NATIONAL SECURITY CRISES IN THE POST-PANDEMIC ERA
The article in question explores how much emergency governance structures that were implemented during and after the COVID-19 pandemic have become institutionalized aspects of executive power in three jurisdictions that can be seen to represent three different types of regimes, including Germany (consolidated democracy), Kenya (transitioning state), and Hungary (illiberal regime). Using the theorisation of the so-called state of exception by Giorgio Agamben and the dictum of Carl Schmitt that he who declares the exception is the sovereign, the study utilizes qualitative content analysis of 274 executive decrees and 83 high-court decisions released between March 2020 and December 2025. These results indicate that there is a quantifiable tendency towards executive aggrandizement in all three cases, but the processes and the size are quite different. In consolidated democracies, the loss of judicial control is gradual and usually concealed by procedural adherence, in illiberal regimes it is explicit and supported by the institution, and in transitional states it is periodic but structurally disruptive. The article then ends with a suggestion of a compulsory framework of Sunset Clause, a legislative structure that mandates time-limited authorisation, a regular review of parliament, and the automatic lapse of all the powers related to security as a remedy to the normalisation of exceptional governance.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mariya Petrova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
REGIME TYPE AND NATIONAL SECURITY OUTCOMES IN NIGERIA: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MILITARY AND DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE
This paper examines the correlation between the regime type and national security outcomes in Nigeria between 1966 and 2025 based on the Civil–Military Relations (CMR) Theory. It looks at the dynamics of security in military rule (19661999) and the democratic rule in the fourth republic (19992025), and compares and contrasts their effectiveness in responding to emerging threats. The qualitative research design is a comparative historical-based study, which relies on secondary and documentary sources, and the content and comparative techniques will be used to interpret the findings. The results reveal that military regimes were based on centralized government and coercive force, which allowed responding quickly to the crisis and creating a temporary stability, especially during the civil war. Yet, these achievements were diluted by weak institutions, oppression, politicization of security systems, and low levels of trust in the government. Democratic rule brought about institutional changes, civilian control and diversified security policies including non-kinetic and regional partnership. However, the continued presence of insurgency, banditry, and communal violence are indicative of structural weaknesses, inadequate coordination, and policy implementation weaknesses. The comparative analysis reveals that although military rule brought short-term stability, it was unsustainable, and the democratic regime offers a more sustainable system even with uneven performance. The research comes to the conclusion that effective national security relies not on regime type but on the institutional capacity, the quality of governance, and legitimacy. It advises the reinforcement of oversight mechanisms, intensifying security sector reform, giving primacy to human-centered strategies, and institutional effectiveness to deliver sustainable security outcomes.
Copyright (c) 2026 Koffi Romeo Lawyerkeme, Emmanuel Tamaramiebi Timidi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
THE ALGORITHM OF INSURGENCY. THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE EFFECT OF AI-MEDIATED DISINFORMATION ON COGNITIVE SECURITY OF NATIONS.
The spread of sophisticated artificial intelligence (AI) programs, in particular Large Language Models (LLMs) and generative adversarial networks that can create synthetic media (deepfakes), has opened a new and dangerous era in the history of information conflict. The main issue that this technological inflection point is raising, discussed in this article, is the development of AI as a force multiplier of disinformation campaigns that are high-frequency, hyper-personalized, and are increasingly indistinguishable to real human communication, bypassing the traditional safeguards of epistemology, and posing a national stability threat. This article presents two main points by using a multidisciplinary approach that combines the theories of security studies, behavioral psychology, and computational linguistics. To begin with, AI-based disinformation implies a qualitative shift in the paradigm of information warfare towards a more insidious one, whereby the strategic object of interest is not physical or cybernetic infrastructure but the perception of reality and epistemological underpinnings of the democratic society, by the individual citizen. Second, existing national security principles, which are based on the notions of territorial sovereignty and the deterrence of kinetic threats, are essentially unprepared to combat this automated, scalable, and to a large extent attributionless insurgency against the popular mind. The article concludes with the suggestion of an elaborate framework of Cognitive Defense, and states that national resilience in the twenty-first century would be achieved through systemic integration of technological countermeasures, the rise of media and information literacy to the rank of core security imperative, and the creation of binding international norms governing the use of AI in the information space.
Computational Propaganda and Information integrity
Copyright (c) 2026 Herasym Dei https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
THE WEAPONIZATION OF INTERDEPENDENCE: ENERGY SECURITY AND THE GEOPOLITICS OF THE GREEN TRANSITION
The dominant narrative considers the green energy transition as a direction to energy autonomy and less geopolitical antagonism. This article questions that assumption. Based on US Geological Survey data on mineral production, trade flow statistics of the UN Comtrade database, and with the help of the International Energy Agency projections, this paper uses Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) analysis to measure the concentration of three key raw materials lithium, cobalt, and graphite. The comparative case study of EU and US legislative reactions, in particular, the Critical Raw Materials Act and the Inflation Reduction Act, charts the policy architecture of de-risking. Results indicate that the midstream processing segment of CRM supply chains is more concentrated than petroleum during the OPEC period with one jurisdiction dominating between 58 and 87 percent of all battery-grade material refining worldwide. The discussion puts these findings into the context of the interdependence theory of Keohane and Nye, that the transition is not a liquidation of energy-based power asymmetries but a reorganization into more inflexible, less replaceable choke points. The article concludes that strategic pluralism in response to supply chain weaponization in the emerging mineral-security order is the only possible option; that is, diversifying not only suppliers but also the underlying technologies.
Copyright (c) 2026 Katarzyna Tamara Rud https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
SECURITY AND CONTEMPORARY THREATS – RECONFIGURATION OF PARADIGMS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF SECURITY
The aim of this article is to analyse the evolution of security paradigms and their reconfiguration in the face of multidimensional threats of the third decade of the 21st century. The authors juxtapose Thomas Hobbes’ classical theory of contractualism with modern concepts of the risk society proposed by Ulrich Beck and Yuval Noah Harari, and with empirical material from 2023–2026. The article addresses the problem of the insufficiency of a state‑centric model of security in the face of contemporary transnational, ecosystemic and algorithmic risks. The method applied combines a critical review of the literature with secondary data analysis based on reports of key national institutions (CBOS, GUS, ZUS, NASK, WIB) and international organisations (Eurostat, WEF, EIB). The study reveals a pronounced “bipolarity” in the perception of security: high stability at the local level is accompanied by an escalation of existential fears. The key vectors of uncertainty are identified as: geopolitical (63% fear for sovereignty), technological (the phenomenon of “domesticated uncertainty”), ecosystemic (68% indicating climate threat) and an institutional trust crisis (57% lack of trust in the justice system). The article argues that in 2026 security becomes a process of continuous reconfiguration, and the traditional Leviathan model gives way to the “e‑Sovereign” and algorithmic management of existence. The conclusions point to the need to move from Hobbesian territorial realism toward building systemic resilience and strengthening the autonomous agency of the individual in an asymmetric international environment.
Copyright (c) 2026 Wojciech Pac, Hubert Cyran https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
ECONOMIC SECURITY AND PROFITABILITY ASSESSMENT OF MILK PRODUCTION ON FRAGMENTED FARMS IN SOUTHEASTERN POLAND (2020–2024)
This article assesses the profitability and economic security of milk production on fragmented, small-scale farms in southeastern Poland over 2020–2024. The analysis is motivated by two concurrent realities. First, fragmentation creates persistent structural constraints—small herds, dispersed plots, weaker bargaining position, and higher transaction costs—that shape the unit cost of production and the realised milk price. Second, the 2020–2024 period exposed farms to pronounced volatility in both output prices and key inputs, particularly feed and energy, which are dominant cost drivers in dairy production. The study adopts a transparency-oriented design that combines (i) authoritative market monitoring of raw milk prices at EU level, (ii) Polish sector evidence and cost-structure context, and (iii) a partial-budgeting stress test that translates plausible price–cost conditions into unit margins (PLN per litre) and evaluates margin fragility under moderate shocks. The results show that under plausible benchmark conditions, representative fragmented farms can operate with very thin buffers and may remain near or below break-even across multiple years when input costs rise faster than milk prices or when milk prices correct while costs remain elevated. Sensitivity scenarios indicate that even moderate adverse movements—such as a 10% decrease in the realised milk price or a 10% increase in feed costs—can deepen negative margins, weakening liquidity and delaying investment. The paper concludes that economic security for fragmented dairy farms depends on risk exposure in feed and energy costs, on productivity and forage strategies, and on organisational solutions such as cooperation that can reduce transaction costs and strengthen market position. Policy implications emphasise targeted modernisation and resilience-building instruments that are compatible with fragmented land structures rather than assuming rapid consolidation as the only pathway to viability.
Copyright (c) 2026 Janusz Kilar, Mateusz Kaczmarski, Piotr Frączek, Magdalena Kilar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
FINANCIAL SECURITY AS A KEY ELEMENT SUPPORTING SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT – A THEORETICAL APPROACH
The main objective of this article is to demonstrate the importance of financial security for supporting the sustainable development of an enterprise. A review of the definitions of financial security was conducted, emphasising its multifaceted nature, properties and functions, and indicating the tools and instruments that enable its effective management. The article demonstrates that financial security guarantees the continuity and development of a company, supports the long-term planning process and protects the company from internal and external threats. The theoretical analysis confirms the hypothesis that financial security is a key condition for the implementation of the concept of sustainable development.
Copyright (c) 2026 Urszula Szczytyńska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
DECENTRALIZED FINANCE (DEFI) AND SANCTIONS EVASION: A RISK ANALYSIS OF MIXERS AND PRIVACY COINS IN FINANCING NATIONAL SECURITY THREATS
The expansion of Decentralized Finance (DeFi) and Anonymity-Enhancing Technologies (AETs) has complicated the tracking of illicit financial flows. This article analyzes three distinct AETs—Tornado Cash, Monero, and Zcash—to assess how specific protocol mechanisms degrade transaction‑graph attribution and obstruct compliance. Synthesizing technical literature, AML/CFT frameworks, and recent judicial documentation, the study traces how design choices translate into investigative challenges. The analysis yields three key findings. First, “decentralization” rarely eliminates control; instead, it shifts choke points to infrastructure layers such as bridges and RPC providers. Second, while AETs significantly raise attribution costs, their effectiveness is often conditional and dependent on usage patterns. Third, the Tornado Cash enforcement saga illustrates the limitations of applying traditional sanctions to autonomous code. The paper concludes by proposing a mitigation agenda focused on measurable risk reduction at entry/exit points without compromising legitimate privacy.
Copyright (c) 2026 Andrii Svintsytskyi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
COGNITIVE SECURITY AND INSTITUTIONAL TRUST: A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF DISINFORMATION CAMPAIGNS TARGETING THE LEGITIMACY OF JUDICIAL AND LAW ENFORCEMENT INSTITUTIONS
Disinformation campaigns increasingly operate as hybrid influence tactics that undermine institutional trust by contesting the epistemic authority of courts and law enforcement. This article develops a sociological account of cognitive security as a governance-relevant capacity: the ability of individuals and communities to maintain reliable belief-updating under conditions of strategic information manipulation. Building on established research on information disorder, misinformation diffusion, and resistance to correction, the article specifies a mechanism linking disinformation to institutional legitimacy. The mechanism combines (i) narrative frames that recode procedural outcomes as political repression or corruption, (ii) repeated exposure within high-engagement networks that accelerates diffusion of low-credibility claims, and (iii) cognitive and motivational frictions that hinder correction, including continued-influence effects. The analysis synthesizes peer-reviewed evidence on misinformation spread and correction and comparative survey indicators of institutional confidence to derive empirically testable expectations about when disinformation is most likely to translate into trust erosion. Boundary conditions and competing explanations—such as pre-existing polarization, performance-based dissatisfaction, and media-market fragmentation—are specified to avoid overattribution. The contribution is twofold: conceptually, it ties cognitive security to legitimacy processes in legal and policing institutions; methodologically, it outlines a transparent evidence-selection and triangulation protocol suitable for comparative research and policy evaluation.
Copyright (c) 2026 Maryna Dei https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATION IN SYRIA AND CONCEPTUAL THREATS TO BULGARIA'S NATIONAL SECURITY
The article represents a retrospective analysis of the military-political and geostrategic dynamics in Syria. The author seeks to identify the major driving forces influencing the development, the repercussions, and the outcome of the internal confrontations that have been ravaging the Syrian society throughout history. The article argues that, depending on the geopolitical and historical context, these forces would either instigate conflict, or be a converging factor around common national interest. Similarly, they would generate long-term tension and pave the way to foreign intervention, or instead, if steered in that direction, they would lead to temporary appeasement and reconciliation. Furthermore, the Salafi jihadist movements, their inception and activities are described as one of the recent driving forces shaping the current security environment in Syria. The article concludes with the affirmation that revealing the ex-post mechanism of the geopolitical factors is a way to forecast their future development, thus uncovering the emergence of potential threats to the national security of Bulgaria. Finally, the infiltration of foreign fighters, radicalization, and soft targets are highlighted as the gravest possible threats requiring a clear precautionary response.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kostadin Kostov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
SOVEREIGNTY THROUGH SELECTIVE INTEGRATION: STRATEGIC NON-COMPLIANCE, COMPLIANCE MINIMALISM, AND GOVERNANCE HARDENING IN EU CRISIS POLITICS
This article identifies Central Europe as a laboratory and stress-test for internal disintegration within the European Union, where states use the Union’s own rules to advance sovereignty-first agendas from inside membership. The Visegrad Group’s shift from a cohesive veto bloc during the 2015 migration crisis to fracture after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, alongside Hungary’s consolidation of a migration security doctrine within the EU, point to a shared underlying pattern. The article theorises this pattern as sovereignty through selective integration and specifies its operation through three interlocking practices: strategic non-compliance, compliance minimalism, and governance hardening. Drawing on earlier case study work on the Visegrad Group and on Hungary, the analysis shows how this triad operates at both regional and national scales, why it stabilised during the migration crisis, and why it fractured under conditions of direct hard security exposure. The article clarifies the scope conditions under which selective integration can endure, the circumstances under which it breaks down, and the ways in which it produces internal disintegration without formal exit. It concludes by outlining implications for EU crisis governance and by indicating how the proposed triad can travel to other domains, including fiscal policy, digital regulation, and internal security.
Copyright (c) 2026 Yassine Guennoun https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
ECONOMIC WARFARE IN THE BLACK SEA: A GEOECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF COERCION THROUGH GRAIN, BLOCKADES, AND ENERGY INFRASTRUCTURE
This article examines economic warfare in the Black Sea as a geoeconomic contest over three interdependent systems: (i) grain and agri‑food logistics, (ii) maritime trade and insurance, and (iii) offshore and coastal energy infrastructure. Using open‑source process tracing and qualitative document analysis of peer‑reviewed studies, official datasets and reports, and policy assessments published primarily in 2022–2025, the paper reconstructs how coercive actions in one domain propagate through shipping routes, risk pricing, and energy‑security expectations. Three mechanisms are identified. First, disruption of export corridors reconfigures the distribution of bargaining power by raising transaction costs and amplifying domestic price discounts for Ukrainian producers. Second, war‑risk and sanctions compliance convert military pressure into insurance and financing constraints that shift trade away from the Black Sea and towards longer, costlier routes. Third, repeated attacks and hybrid interference against energy assets increase systemic uncertainty and alter investment and resilience decisions well beyond the immediate theatre. The article argues that these mechanisms operate as mutually reinforcing channels of coercion: the effect is not only the denial of specific cargo flows or megawatts, but the strategic manipulation of expectations and contractual risk allocation in regional markets. The contribution is conceptual and policy‑relevant: it specifies observable indicators for tracing economic coercion in maritime regions and delineates boundary conditions, limitations, and alternative interpretations for causal claims in open‑source research.
Copyright (c) 2026 Andrii Lyseiuk https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Retraction Notice: EXPLORING THE INFLUENCE OF ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE ON FISH PRODUCTION IN RURAL-BANGLADESH
Retraction Notice Article title: EXPLORING THE INFLUENCE OF ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE ON FISH PRODUCTION IN RURAL-BANGLADESH Authors: Linda Bairagi, Harun-Ar-Rashid, Mahrufur Rahman, Tanjila Sheikh, Tanbir Hossain Originally published in: Politics & Security, Vol. 12, Issue 2, pp. 32-40 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54658/ps.28153324.2025.12.2.pp.32-40 The editorial board of Politics & Security has decided to retract the above article due to duplicate publication. After the publication in this journal, it was found that the same article had been published in Journal of Social and Political Sciences and Development Studies (https://paperssds.eu/index.php/JSPSDS/article/view/864), in violation of the COPE Code of Conduct and the journal’s Publication Ethics Policy. The retraction has been approved by the Editor-in-Chief. Date of retraction: 30/10/2025 Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Igor Britchenko Politics & Security
Copyright (c) 2026 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
DOG WHISTLES AND CAT SENSES – HIDDEN EXTREMISM AND THE FRAMEWORK ОF LEGAL OVERSIGHT IN EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS CASE LAW
This paper examines the challenges posed by hidden extremist messages communicated through coded language, memes, irony, and discursively veiled expressions within the framework of the European Court of Human Rights’ (ECtHR) case law. It develops a methodological framework for assessing such speech, drawing on discourse analysis, speech act theory, and the concept of “dog whistle” communication. Through an analysis of ECtHR and selected national decisions, the study highlights the tension between safeguarding freedom of expression under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights and addressing disguised incitement to hatred or violence. It argues that courts must adapt their interpretative tools to account for the evolving forms of extremist rhetoric in digital environments, where messages often operate simultaneously on multiple semantic levels.
Copyright (c) 2025 Vasil Georgiev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
SECURITY CHALLENGES OF IOT INTEGRATION IN NATIONAL AND STATE CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURES
This investigation scrutinizes the incorporation of Internet of Things (IoT) systems within national infrastructures, accentuating both operational advantages and notable security challenges. It delves into the stratified architecture of IoT, underscoring vulnerabilities that emerge from device constraints, varied deployment environments, and inadequate cybersecurity practices. The examination addresses external threats such as distributed denial-of-service attacks, malware, and data manipulation, in conjunction with internal risks including insider threats and misconfigurations. The ramifications of these threats on critical infrastructure sectors, such as energy, transportation, and healthcare, are evaluated, with a focus on operational disruptions and economic impacts. Emergent defense strategies involving Software-Defined Networking and machine learning-based anomaly detection are assessed for their capability to bolster security posture. Furthermore, the role of national cybersecurity strategies and regulatory frameworks is analyzed, concentrating on multi-stakeholder coordination, legal measures, and adaptive governance to manage evolving risks. The findings highlight the imperative of integrating technical, organizational, and policy approaches to protect IoT-enabled critical systems and sustain national security resilience.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rafał Lizut https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
THE INDO-PACIFIC AS A STRATEGIC ARENA: EVOLVING SECURITY ALLIANCES AND DEEPENING POWER RIVALRIES
This paper examines the transformation of the Indo-Pacific into the central arena for global strategic competition. It argues that the intensifying rivalry between the United States and the People's Republic of China is the primary driver reshaping the regional security architecture. This rivalry has catalyzed the formation and strengthening of countervailing coalitions, notably the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) and the AUKUS pact, while simultaneously challenging the centrality of established ASEAN-led institutions. Through a qualitative analysis of strategic documents, academic literature, and policy reports from 2020-2025, this study dissects the interplay of military modernization, nuclear deterrence, and the weaponization of the economic-security nexus, particularly in critical technology supply chains. The findings indicate a shift towards a more fragmented and contested regional order, characterized by a complex web of overlapping bilateral and minilateral arrangements designed to balance against China's rise. While these alignments enhance deterrence, they also heighten the risks of miscalculation and escalation. The paper concludes with policy recommendations for strengthening cooperative security mechanisms, managing geoeconomic friction, and establishing robust crisis communication channels to ensure regional stability.
Copyright (c) 2025 Maryna Dei https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
THE ROLE OF PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES IN CONTEMPORARY CONFLICTS: LEGAL AND SECURITY DILEMMAS
This article undertakes an examination of the escalating role assumed by Private Military Companies (PMCs) within the matrix of contemporary conflicts, positing that their proliferation—most notably the ascendancy of state-proxy models exemplified by the Wagner Group—constitutes an exploitation of a critical vacuum within the corpus of international law. Effectuated through a comparative analysis of PMC operations across Iraq, Ukraine, Syria, and Africa, this paper demonstrates the mechanisms by which such entities precipitate an erosion of state sovereignty, present a formidable challenge to the tenets of international humanitarian law (IHL), and engender systemic lacunae in accountability. Our findings indicate that extant regulatory frameworks, inclusive of the Montreux Document and the International Code of Conduct (ICoCA), are possessed of an inherent insufficiency for addressing the geopolitical instrumentality characteristic of modern PMCs. The article culminates in the proposal of a binding UN Convention on Private Military and Security Activities, wherein a four-pillar governance model is outlined with the objective of re-establishing state responsibility, guaranteeing accountability, and regulating the ongoing privatization of warfare.
Copyright (c) 2025 Igor Britchenko https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
THE VISEGRAD GROUP AND THE WAR IN UKRAINE: FROM VETO BLOC TO VOID
This article asks why Russia’s 2022 invasion fractured the Visegrád Group and answers by showing that the cohesion once visible during the 2015 migration crisis rested on a model of negative integration that could resist supranational pressure yet could not be translated into the demands of war. When faced with a proximate conflict that required convergent threat perception, collective risk-sharing and credible military capacity, the four states moved along divergent paths: Poland recast sovereignty as survival and bound itself more deeply to NATO and United States’ guarantees, Hungary treated sovereignty as autonomy and used veto power while maintaining energy ties with Moscow, Slovakia balanced cooperation and restraint within a polarised domestic arena, and Czechia consolidated an Atlanticist line alongside Poland. These trajectories produced a structural split that removed the V4 from the centre of Europe’s security debates and revealed a deeper mechanism: coalitions forged in opposition can endure in institutional disputes but falter once coercive shocks demand common strategy. What remains of the Visegrád format is protocol and symbol only, while effective agency has shifted to NATO, to coalitions of the willing within the EU, and to minilateral formats that reflect the real distribution of threat, capacity and political will across the continent.
Copyright (c) 2025 Yassine Guennoun https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
FROM CRISIS TO DOCTRINE: A DECADE OF MIGRATION SECURITIZATION AND STRATEGIC DEFIANCE IN HUNGARY
This article examines how Hungary, between 2015 and 2025, reworked migration policy into a doctrine of sovereignty-driven securitization. What started as short-term crisis responses became a governing toolkit that joined restrictive law, threat-heavy messaging, and calculated non-compliance with EU rules. Read through securitization theory and differentiated integration, this shift turns migration from a welfare or demographic matter into the main stage for asserting state sovereignty. The study employs a critical case study design, drawing on governmental speeches, EU court rulings, media campaigns, and regional declarations, alongside secondary scholarship. The findings demonstrate that Hungary not only entrenched legal resistance and fortified its borders with symbolic and technological infrastructures, but also mobilised regional alliances to contest supranational authority. In doing so, it recast European integration as conditional and strategically reversible. The article argues that Hungary exemplifies a broader post-liberal mode of governance in which the language and institutions of liberal order are retained yet redirected toward sovereignty-first objectives. The case offers a replicable template for how member states can recalibrate supranational authority from within, embedding fragmentation as a structural condition of the European project.
STRATEGIC INTELLIGENCE MANAGEMENT AND LAW ENFORCEMENT IN NIGERIA: FIXING THE GAPS
Abstract This study focuses on important issues in how strategic intelligence is managed within Nigerian law enforcement agencies, with the goal of improving national security. It looks at the current situation of intelligence collection and analysis, looking at the structures, processes, and abilities in place. The study identifies key obstacles to effective sharing and cooperation among security agencies, exploring institutional, operational, and cultural challenges. It also evaluates the quality of training and technology available for intelligence work, looking at the effectiveness of training programs and the state of technological resources. The research also looks at how socio-political issues like political influence, corruption, and public attitudes affect the objectivity and success of intelligence agencies. Based on these findings, the study offers practical advice and strategies to close these gaps and improve the security system in Nigeria, ultimately making law enforcement more effective.
Strategic Intelligence, Law Enforcement, Nigeria, Intelligence Management, National Security,
Copyright (c) 2025 Ngboawaji Nte, Ben Robert Eyororokumoh https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
ETHIOPIA'S DIFFICULT COURSE: MULTIPARTY POLITICS AND BUILDING DEMOCRACY (1991-NOW) – INSIGHTS GAINED
Abstract The shift to multiparty politics in Ethiopia after the Derg regime was overthrown in 1991 marked a crucial moment for building a democratic state. This article takes a close look at how multiparty systems have either helped or hindered this journey over the last thirty years. By diving into historical events, institutional setups, electoral processes, and the political landscape, it argues that even though multipartyism was officially adopted, its real impact on democracy has been significantly limited. Several key issues contribute to this: the lingering effects of centralized governance, the strong influence of ethnonationalism in how parties are formed and compete, the weak establishment of democratic norms, ongoing state repression, and the tough task of balancing ethnic federalism with national unity. The analysis highlights important lessons: simply having multiparty systems isn't enough without a true commitment to political diversity and the rule of law; ethno-political parties can empower communities but also exacerbate societal divides; strong, independent institutions are essential; and fostering inclusive dialogue is crucial for navigating the complexities of identity politics. The period after 2018 shows both new opportunities and the ongoing vulnerability of Ethiopia's democratic efforts, calling for deep reforms focused on real political liberalization and strengthening institutions. Ethiopia's experience with multipartyism over the last thirty years makes one thing clear: simply having multiple political parties isn't enough to build a solid democracy. While it may seem like there's political diversity, the system often fails to provide true political rights, accountability, or a fair playing field. To make real strides in democracy, Ethiopia needs to move past the surface-level multiparty elections and focus on genuine political liberalization, building strong and impartial institutions that uphold the rule of law, and nurturing a political culture that promotes tolerance, inclusive citizenship, and dialogue that goes beyond ethnic lines.
Ethiopia, Democracy, Multiparty System, Ethnic Federalism, EPRDF, Prosperity Party, Opposition Parties, State Building.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tariku Dagne https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
SECURITY DYNAMICS IN THE BLACK SEA REGION: ANALYZING THE INTERSECTION OF NATO POLICIES, RUSSIAN INFLUENCE, AND ECONOMIC INTERESTS
Abstract The Black Sea has re-emerged as a central theater of geopolitical competition where NATO's defensive posture, Russia's revisionist ambitions, and the geoeconomics of energy and trade are locked in a complex, dynamic interplay. Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine has shattered the post-Cold War security architecture, creating a precarious new reality. This article analyzes the key drivers of instability, assesses the shifting balance of power, and evaluates strategic prospects. It argues that while Ukrainian asymmetric warfare has checked Russian naval dominance, the region remains acutely vulnerable to hybrid threats and escalation, demanding a more coherent, resourced, and integrated strategy from Western actors.
Copyright (c) 2025 Inna Kulko-Labyntseva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
THE INSIDER THREAT: A SOCIO-TECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF PREVENTING DATA BREACHES AND ESPIONAGE WITHIN GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES
Abstract This article presents a socio-technical analysis of the insider threat phenomenon within governmental and public sector institutions. It argues that effective mitigation requires a dynamic, integrated strategy that moves beyond siloed technical controls to holistically address the interplay between individual psychology, organizational culture, technical architecture, and policy enforcement. The analysis defines the governmental insider threat, distinguishing between malicious, unintentional, and compromised insiders, and demonstrates how this typology maps to distinct root causes within the socio-technical system. Through a detailed examination of the Edward Snowden and Chelsea Manning cases, the article deconstructs the convergence of psychological, cultural, and technical vulnerabilities that precipitate catastrophic breaches. It systematically analyzes contributory factors at the individual level, using the Critical Pathway to Insider Risk (CPIR) model; the organizational level, focusing on culture, leadership, and trust; and the technical level, highlighting architectural weaknesses. The article then evaluates a multi-layered defense-in-depth framework integrating human-centric strategies (e.g., positive deterrence, robust training), technical countermeasures (e.g., Zero Trust Architecture, User and Entity Behavior Analytics), and comprehensive policy frameworks (e.g., Executive Order 13587, NITTF Maturity Framework). The inherent tension between security surveillance and employee privacy is explored, reframing privacy protection as a positive driver of organizational trust and security. The article culminates in a novel, coordinated intervention model and provides actionable policy recommendations for governmental agencies to build a more resilient and secure posture against the threat from within..
Copyright (c) 2025 Mykhailo Lishchynsky https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
ENERGY SECURITY AS A FACTOR OF POLITICAL STABILITY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Abstract. This article explores the intricate relationship between energy security and political stability within the European Union (EU), particularly in light of the geopolitical upheaval caused by Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The crisis marked a turning point in EU energy policy, exposing deep vulnerabilities linked to dependence on Russian fossil fuels and catalyzing a redefinition of energy security as a matter of strategic autonomy and resilience. Adopting a mixed-methods approach—combining discourse analysis, policy review, and comparative case studies—the study examines how the EU’s responses to this crisis have affected internal cohesion, social peace, and institutional legitimacy. Focusing on the policy trilemma between short-term energy needs, long-term climate goals, and socio-political stability, the article argues that governance choices made in response to the energy crisis have generated new political fault lines across Member States. Case studies of Germany, Poland, and the Baltic States illustrate diverging national strategies and their implications for EU-wide stability. The findings highlight that the EU's future political coherence hinges on its ability to align energy resilience with climate commitments while mitigating the socio-economic impacts of the green transition. Ultimately, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the securitization of energy policy and the evolving dynamics of EU integration in an age of crises.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nataliia Trushkina https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
THE GEOPOLITICS OF CYBERSECURITY: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF NATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DIGITAL SOVEREIGNTY
Abstract. This paper investigates the divergent national strategies for achieving "digital sovereignty" among four major geopolitical actors: the United States, the European Union, China, and Russia. It argues that digital sovereignty has evolved from a defensive concept focused on network security into a comprehensive geopolitical strategy for projecting power, values, and economic influence (Süsslin, 2025; Metakides, 2025). Through a comparative analysis of key policy and legal frameworks—including the US National Cybersecurity Strategy (2023), the EU's GDPR/DSA/DMA package, China's Cybersecurity Law (CSL), and Russia's "Sovereign Internet" laws—the paper identifies three distinct models of digital sovereignty: the US market-driven, rebalanced-responsibility model; the EU's regulation-as-power, normative model; and the Sino-Russian state-centric, control-oriented model (Metakides, 2025; Freedom House, n.d.). The analysis reveals that these approaches are creating a fragmented "splinternet," characterized by competing regulatory blocs, contested data governance regimes, and a securitized global technology supply chain (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2025). The paper concludes by proposing a new framework that understands digital sovereignty not merely as a quest for autonomy but as a primary vector for exercising state power in a multipolar digital world order, with significant implications for global stability, international law, and the future of the internet..
Copyright (c) 2025 Oksana Prokopyshyn, Nataliia Trushkina https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
CLIMATE CHANGE AS A THREAT MULTIPLIER: ASSESSING ITS IMPACT ON RESOURCE SCARCITY, MIGRATION, AND POLITICAL INSTABILITY
Abstract. This article examines the conceptualization and application of climate change as a "threat multiplier" in global security discourse. Originating within the U.S. national security community, the term describes how the physical impacts of climate change interact with and exacerbate pre-existing social, economic, and political vulnerabilities, thereby multiplying threats to peace and stability. While the framework has been instrumental in placing climate change on the security agenda, it is also critiqued for potentially constraining policy responses to a reactive, management-oriented posture rather than promoting transformative change. This study employs a qualitative, comparative case study methodology to deconstruct the threat multiplier effect through its cascading impacts. It first analyzes the first-order impact of climate change on critical resources, with a focus on water stress in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. It then investigates the second-order human consequence of climate-induced migration, examining patterns in the Sahel, Bangladesh, and Central America, and highlighting the profound legal and geopolitical challenges posed by the lack of international protection for "climate refugees." Finally, through in-depth case studies of Syria and Sudan, the article analyzes how these combined pressures can culminate in the third-order outcome of political instability and violent conflict. The analysis reveals that governance is the critical mediating variable determining whether climate stress leads to instability. The article concludes by assessing the policy responses of the United Nations, European Union, and the United States, identifying key gaps, and advocating for an integrated policy framework that merges climate adaptation, development, and peacebuilding to address the multifaceted nature of climate-related security risks.
RETRACTED: EXPLORING THE INFLUENCE OF ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE ON FISH PRODUCTION IN RURAL-BANGLADESH
This article has been retracted due to duplicate publication. Abstract Aquaculture is a buzzword for rural economy as well as regional development. In this research, the author considers five individual villages where 200 farmers have been identified randomly. In this paper, the author divides this research into two segments. Firstly, most of the local farmers consider basic factors, where variable costs that is daily basis expenses affect fish production variables for farmers. Secondly, the authors try to identify the environmental knowledge index (EKI) for farmers affecting fish production, the EKI is measured by table 2. In Table 3, most of the expenses are calculated for human labor, fish feed and fingerlings purposes. Marginal farmers face higher variable costs compared to the other two categories of farmers. The authors run the Cobb-Douglas multiple regression model to investigate the effect of independent variables on fish production hectare-wise, while human labor cost, feed and manure cost, water supply, and Sustainability knowledge index have positive and significant relationships with fish production. To justify the 2nd research question, EKI has a significant connection with fish production for farmers, because EKI helps farmers to lead production at a lower cost while maintaining a hygienic production system. The green economy is the upcoming challenge for the future, which leads to sustainable production and consumption behavior for producers and consumers. Moreover, sustainable and effective marketing channel creation are challenging factors for fish production and supply.
Aquaculture, Marginal-farmers, Environmental Knowledge, Green economy, Rural-Bangladesh
Copyright (c) 2025 Linda Bairagi, Harun-Ar-Rashid, Mahrufur Rahman, Tanjila Sheikh, Tanbir Hossain https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
WORK SAFETY ON FARMS IN POLAND – LEGAL, SOCIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Abstract. Agriculture is an economic sector with a high accident rate. Working on a farm requires acquiring knowledge, skills and experience in various fields. The specificity of this industry leads to many health and life hazards and a high risk of accidents. Farmers work in different positions, depending on what is produced on the farm. They operate machinery and equipment, as well as perform maintenance and repairs, participate in transport and storage processes, take care of farm animals, perform agricultural technical and chemical treatments and other non-agricultural activities. The simultaneous occurrence of many production and logistics processes increases the risk of accidents and makes work in agriculture more difficult. Transport and storage processes are common on farms. They are defined as a carefully organized system of interconnected logistics processes, the purpose of which is to produce agricultural products using land, labor, capital, management decisions (farmers) and the forces of nature. Statistics show that the most dangerous events can be considered those that occur during transport work and those related to the operation of tractors and agricultural machinery.
Copyright (c) 2025 Janusz Kilar, Małgorzata Szeliga, Magdalena Kilar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0